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Readings on Witch Trials
The fifteenth century marks a transitional phase in the attitude of Western Christians toward the supernatural. Medieval people had maintained many pagan customs and practices, particularly in association with such day-to-day needs as herbal remedies, love potions, and talismans thought to bring good fortune. "Wise women" and "cunning men" could be found in any rural community or urban neighborhood, combining fanciful supernatural claims with some real knowledge of herbal medicine. Yet by the late Middle Ages, such customs came under increasing suspicion as theologians began to equate supernatural practices with heresy. Authorities particularly scrutinized women who made claims to special powers as healers or diviners. A successful accusation that a woman's gifts came from demonic sources ensured her death. There was, however, often more to the story than the clear-cut, straightforward information revealed at the trials, as indicated by these three cases, the first two involving women in Florence, Italy, and the last one involving a man, the mayor of the city of Bamburg in Bavaria, Germany.
1) Diabolical Seduction: A
Witch on Trial (1375)
The Magistrates of Florence
We condemn Monna Caterina di Agostino, who lives in the
parish of S. Giorgio of Florence, a woman of the most evil life, condition, and
reputation, against whom we have proceeded as a result of an accusation brought
before us and our court by Vieri di
Michele Rondinelli, of the parish of S. Lorenzo of
Florence. . . . Motivated by a diabolical spirit, Caterina
committed numerous and various acts of sorcery and magic and also invoked
demons, in order that the chaste souls of men, and particularly the soul of
Paolo di Michele Rondinelli,
of the parish of S. Lorenzo of
Caterina also received from Paolo . . . several sums of
money totalling more than 400 florins, as well as
other items. As a result of this illegal and abominable activity, Paolo has
been nearly reduced to indigence, to the shame and detriment of himself and his
kin. And all this was committed and perpertrated by Caterina . . . against the form of law, the statutes and
ordinances of the Florentine Commune, against the Catholic faith and freedom of
the will, and against good customs. As a result of these acts committed by Caterina, disorder, tumult, and scandal have arisen in the
city of
2) The Enchantress: A
Witch on Trial (1427)
The Magistrates of Florence
We condemn...Giovanna called Caterina, daughter of
Francesco called El Toso, a resident of the parish of
S. Ambrogio of Florence...who is a magician, witch,
and sorceress, and a practitioner of the black arts.... It happened
that Giovanni Ceresani of the parish of S. Jacopo tra le Fosse was passing by her door and stared at her
fixedly. She thought that she would draw the chaste spirit of Giovanni to her
for carnal purposes by means of the black arts.... She went to the shop of Monna Gilia, the druggist, and
purchased from her a small amount of lead...and then she took a bowl and placed
the lead in it and put it on the fire so that the lead would melt. With this
melted lead she made a small chain and spoke certain words which have
significance for this magical and diabolical art (and which, lest the people
learn about them, shall not be recorded).... All this which was done and spoken
against Giovanni's safety by Giovanna was so powerful that his chaste spirit
was deflected to lust after her, so that willynilly
he went several times to her house and there he fulfilled her perfidious
desire.
With the desire of doing further harm to Giovanni's health through the black
arts, and so persisting in what she had begun, she acquired a little gold,
frankincense, and myrrh, and then took a little bowl with some glowing charcoal
inside, and having prepared these ingredients and having lit the candle which
she held in her left hand, she genuflected [bowed] before the image and placed
the bowl at the foot of the figure. Calling out the name of Giovanni, she threw
the gold, frankincense, and myrrh upon the charcoal. And when the smoke from
the charcoal covered the whole image, Giovanni spoke certain words, the tenor
of which is vile and detestable, and which should buried in silence lest the
people be given information for committing sin.
When she realized that what she had done against Giovanni's health was not
sufficient to satisfy completely her insatiable lust, she learned from a
certain priest that . . . if water from the skulls of dead men was distilled
and given with a little wine to any man, that it was a most valid test. . . .
Night and day, that woman thought of nothing but how she could give that water
to Giovanni to drink. . . . She visited the priest and bought from him a small
amount of that water . . . and that accursed woman gave Giovanni that water
mixed with wine to drink. After he drank it, Giovanni could think of nothing
but satisfying his lust with Giovanna. And his health has been somewhat
damaged, in the opinion of good and worthy men. [Also], in the time when
Giovanna was menstruating, she took a little of her menses, that quantity which
is required by the diabolical ceremonies, and placed it in a small beaker, and
then poured it into another flask filled with wine and gave it to Giovanni to
drink. And on account of this and other things described above, Giovanni no
longer has time for his affairs as he did in the past, and he has left his home
and his wife and son . . . and does only what pleases Giovanna. . . .
On several occasions, Giovanna had intercourse with a certain Jacopo di Andrea, a doublet-maker, of the parish of
Several years ago, Giovanna was the concubine of Niccolò
di Ser Casciotto of the
parish of S. Giorgio, and she had three children by him. Having a great
affection for Niccolò, who was then in
She collected nine beans, a piece of cloth, some charcoal, several olive leaves
which had been blessed and which stood before the image of the Virgin Mary, a
coin with a cross, and a grain of salt. With these in her hand she genuflected
. . . [before the image] and recited three times the Pater Noster
and the Ave Maria, spurning the divine prayers composed for the worship of God
and his mother the Virigin Mary. Having done this,
she placed these items on a piece of linen cloth and slept over them for three
nights. And afterwards, she took them in her hand and thrice repeated the Pater
Noster and the Ave Maria. . . . And thus Giovanna
knew that her future husband would not love her. And so it happened, for after
the celebration and the consummation of the marriage, her husband Giovanni
stayed with her for a few days, and then left her and has not yet returned.
[Giovanna confessed to these crimes and was beheaded].
Source: Gene Brucker, ed., The Society of Renaissance
3) The Witch Persecution at
In the early 17th century, the state of
Johannes Junius was the mayor of the city of
Junius describes the agonies of his "painless" torture, torments that left his hands crippled for weeks. His "spontaneous" confession was made in fear of further torture. As mayor, Junius knew the torturer. The man warned him of the torments yet to come and begged him to make up a false confession that could at least spare him further agony. He did, and to his horror discovered that the court refused to accept his confession unless he named other Witches who attended the witches' sabbath. Junius refused to implicate anyone else, and he was tortured again. This time he broke, and when the court gave him a list of suspected Witches, Junius meekly agreed that all of them had attended a sabbath with him. Later, back in prison, Junius met the other Witches who had implicated him. He forgave them, and prayed that the people he'd condemned could find it in their hearts to forgive him as well. The minutes of most the trial, which is in all respects a fair specimen of German witch-trials, runs as follows:
. . . On Wednesday, June 28, 1628, was examined without
torture Johannes Junius, Burgomaster at
Confrontation of Dr. Georg Adam Haan. Tells him to his face be will stake his life on it [er wolle darauf leben und sterben], that he saw him, Junius, a year and a half ago at a witch-gathering in the electoral council-room where they ate and drank. Accused denies the same wholly.
Confronted with Hopffens Elsse. Tells him likewise that he was on Haupts-moor at a witch-dance; but first the holy wafer was desecrated. Junius denies. Hereupon he was told that his accomplices had confessed against him and was given time for thought.
On Friday, June 30, 1628, the aforesaid Junius was again without torture exhorted to confess, but again confessed nothing, whereupon, . . . since he would confess nothing, he was put to the torture, and first the Thumb-screws were applied. Says he has never denied God his Saviour nor suffered himself to be otherwise baptized [NOTE: this is the usual phrase for the rite, a parody of baptism, by which the Devil was believed to initiate his followers]; will again stake his life on it; feels no pain in the thumb-screws.
Leg-screws. Will confess absolutely nothing [and] knows nothing about it. He has never renounced God; will never do such a thing; has never been guilty of this vice; feels likewise no pain.
Is stripped and examined; on his right side is found a bluish mark, like a clover leaf, is thrice pricked therein, but feels no pain and no blood flows out.
Strappado. He has never renounced God; God will not forsake him; if he were such a wretch he would not let himself be so tortured; God must show some token of his innocence. He knows nothing about witchcraft. . . .
On July 5, the above named Junius is without torture, but with urgent persuasions, exhorted to confess, and at last begins and confesses:
When in the year 1624 his law-suit at Rothweil cost him some six hundred florins, he had gone out, in the month of August, into his orchard at Friedrichsbronnen; and, as he sat there in thought, there had come to him a woman like a grass-maid, who had asked him why he sat there so sorrowful; he had answered that he was not despondent, but she had led him by seductive speeches to yield him to her will. . . . And thereafter this wench had changed into the form of a goat, which bleated and said, "Now you see with whom you have had to do. You must be mine or I will forthwith break your neck." Thereupon he had been frightened, and trembled all over for fear. Than [sic] the transformed spirit had seized him by the throat and demanded that he should renounce God Almighty, whereupon Junius said, "God forbid," and thereupon the spirit vanquished through the power of these words. Yet it came straightway back, brought more people with it, and persistently demanded of him that he renounce God in Heaven and all the heavenly host, by which terrible threatening he was obliged to speak this formula: "I renounce God in Heaven and his host, and will henceforward recognize the Devil as my God."
After the renunciation he was so far persuaded by those present and by the evil spirit that he suffered himself to be otherwise baptized in the evil spirit's name. . . . He was then named Krix. His paramour he had to call Vixen. Those present had congratulated him in Beelzebub's name and said that they were now all alike. At this baptism of his there were among others the aforesaid Christiana Morhauptin, the young Geiserlin, Paul Glaser, [and others]. After this they had dispersed.
At this time his paramour had promised to provide him with money, and from time to time to take him to other witch-gatherings. . . . Whenever he wished to ride forth [to the witch-sabbath] a black dog had come before his bed, which said to him that he must go with him, whereupon he had seated himself upon the dog and the dog had raised himself in the Devil's name and so had fared forth.
About two years ago he was taken to the electoral council-room, at the left hand as one goes in. Above at a table were seated the Chancellor, the Burgomaster Neydekher, Dr. George Haan, [and many others]. Since his eyes were not good, he could not recognize more persons.
More time for consideration was now given him. On July 7, the aforesaid Junius was again examined, to know what further had occurred to him to confess. He confesses that about two months ago, on the day after an execution was held, he was at a witch-dance at the Black Cross, where Beelzebub had shown himself to them all and said expressly to their faces that they must all be burned together on this spot, and had ridiculed and taunted those present. . . .
His paramour had immediately after his seduction demanded that he should make away with his younger son Hans Georg, and had given him for this purpose a gray powder; this, however, being too hard for him, he had made away with his horse, a brown, instead. His paramour had also often spurred him on to kill his daughter . . . and because he would not do this he had been maltreated with blows by the evil spirit. Once at the suggestion of his paramour he had taken the holy wafer out of his mouth and given it to her. . . . A week before his arrest as he was going to St. Martin's church the Devil met him on the way, in the form of a goat, and told him that he would soon he imprisoned, but that he should not trouble himself--he would soon set him free. Besides this, by his soul's salvation, he knew nothing further; but what he had spoken was the pure truth; on that he would stake his life. On August 6, 1628, there was read to the aforesaid Junius this his confession, which he then wholly ratified and confirmed, and was willing to stake his life upon it. And afterward he voluntarily confirmed the same before the court.
{So ended the trial of Junius, and he was
accordingly burned at the stake. But it so happens that there is also preserved
in Bamberg a letter, in quivering hand, secretly written by him to his daughter
while in the midst of his trial (July 24, 1628)}:
Many hundred thousand good-nights, dearly beloved daughter Veronica. Innocent have I come into prison, innocent have I been tortured, innocent must I die. For whoever comes into the witch prison must become a witch or be tortured until he invents something out of his head and--God pity him--bethinks him of something. I will tell you how it has gone with me. When I was the first time put to the torture, Dr. Braun, Dr. Kotzendorffer, and two strange doctors were there. Then Dr. Braun asks me, "Kinsman, how come you here?" I answer, "Through falsehood, through misfortune." "Hear, you," he says, "you are a witch; will you confess it voluntarily? If not, we'll bring in witnesses and the executioner for you." I said "I am no witch, I have a pure conscience in the matter; if there are a thousand witnesses, I am not anxious, but I'll gladly hear the witnesses." Now the chancellor's son was set before me . . . and afterward Hoppfen Elss. She had seen me dance on Haupts-moor. . . . I answered: "I have never renounced God, and will never do it--God graciously keep me from it. I'll rather bear whatever I must." And then came also--God in highest Heaven have mercy--the executioner, and put the thumb-screws on me, both hands bound together, so that the blood ran out at the nails and everywhere, so that for four weeks I could not use my hands, as you can see from the writing. . . . Thereafter they first stripped me, bound my hands behind me, and drew me up in the torture. Then I thought heaven and earth were at an end; eight times did they draw me up and let me fall again, so that I suffered terrible agony. . . .
And this happened on Friday, June 30, and with God's help I had to bear the torture. . . . When at last the executioner led me back into the prison, he said to me: "Sir, I beg you, for God's sake confess something, whether it be true or not. Invent something, for you cannot endure the torture which you will be put to; and, even if you bear it all, yet you will not escape, not even if you were an earl, but one torture will follow after another until you say you are a witch. Not before that," he said, "will they let you go, as you may see by all their trials, for one is just like another." . . .
And so I begged, since I was in wretched plight, to be given one day for thought and a priest. The priest was refused me, but the time for thought was given. Now, my dear child, see in what hazard I stood and still stand. I must say that I am a witch, though I am not, --must now renounce God, though I have never done it before. Day and night I was deeply troubled, but at last there came to me a new idea. I would not be anxious, but, since I had been given no priest with whom I could take counsel, I would myself think of something and say it. It were surely better that I just say it with mouth and words, even though I had not really done it; and afterwards I would confess it to the priest, and let those answer for it who compel me to do it. . . . And so I made my confession, as follows; but it was all a lie.
Now follows, dear child, what I confessed in order to escape the great anguish and bitter torture, which it was impossible for me longer to bear.
{Here follows his confession, substantially as it is given in the minutes of his trial. But he adds}:
Then I had to tell what people I had seen [at the witch-sabbath]. I said that I had not recognized them. "You old rascal, I must set the executioner at you. Say--was not the Chancellor there?" So I said yes. "Who besides?" I had not recognized anybody. So he said: "Take one street after another; begin at the market, go out on one street and back on the next." I had to name several persons there. Then came the long street. I knew nobody. Had to name eight persons there. Then the Zinkenwert--one person more. Then over the upper bridge to the Georgthor, on both sides. Knew nobody again. Did I know nobody in the castle--whoever it might be, I should speak without fear. And thus continuously they asked me on all the streets, though I could not and would not say more. So they gave me to the executioner, told him to strip me, shave me all over, and put me to the torture. "The rascal knows one on the market-place, is with him daily, and yet won't name him." By that they meant Dietmeyer: so I had to name him too.
Then I had to tell what crimes I had committed. I said nothing.
. . "Draw the rascal up!" So I said that I was to kill my children, but I had killed a horse instead. It did not help. I had also taken a sacred wafer, and had desecrated it. When I had said this, they left me in peace.
Now, dear child, here you have all my confession, for which I must die. And they are sheer lies and made-up things, so help me God. For all this I was forced to say through fear of the torture which was threatened beyond what I had already endured. For they never leave off with the torture till one confesses something; be he never so good, he must be a witch. Nobody escapes, though he were an earl. . . .
Dear child, keep this letter secret so that people do not find it, else I shall be tortured most piteously and the jailers will be beheaded. So strictly is it forbidden. . . . Dear child, pay this man a dollar. . . . I have taken several days to write this: my hands are both lame. I am in a sad plight. . . .
Good night, for your father Johannes Junius will never see you more. July 24, 1628.
{WRITTEN IN THE MARGINS OF THE LETTER}: Dear child, six have confessed against me at once: the Chancellor, his son, Neudecker, Zaner, Hoffmaisters Ursel, and Hoppfen Els--all false, through compulsion, as they have all told me, and begged my forgiveness in God's name before they were executed. . . . They know nothing but good of me. They were forced to say it, just as I myself was. . . .
{On August 6th, Johannes Junius was burned at the stake}.